AGORA INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF JURIDICAL SCIENCES
ISSN 1843-570X, E-ISSN 2067-7677. Frequency: 2 issues/year. Acronym: AIJJS. Issue 1 of the journal is completed, finalized and published by June 30 of each year. Issue 2 of the journal is completed, finalized and published by December 30 of each year. AIJJS appears since 2007 and includes studies that are structured on the following scientific fields: Private Law, Public Law, Criminal Law and Criminalistics, Law and Education, International Law, European Law, Public Administration. Category B+ in CNCSIS2011. Indexing/ abstacting/ coverage:~EBSCO;~JournalTOCs;~Stanford Libraries;~vLex International Law;~High Court of Delhi;~HeinOnline. Starting with 2022 issues, the journal has 2 sections: Section I. Juridical Sciences and Section II. Administrative Sciences. Also, to encourage young researchers, beginning with 2023 issues, there was added Section III. Master Students. Agora International Journal of Juridical Sciences is recognized by the Italian National Agency for the Evaluation of the Academic and Research System (ANVUR), in category A, field 14 - Socio-legal sciences. This journal is guided and follows the principles of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).
LIABILITY OF INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS FOR THIRD-PARTY ONLINE COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT IN NIGERIA
The rapid evolution of digital technologies has fundamentally transformed the dissemination of creative works, positioning Internet Service Providers (ISPs) as indispensable intermediaries in the online ecosystem. However, this pivotal role has simultaneously exposed ISPs to significant legal scrutiny regarding their responsibility for copyright infringements committed by third parties through their networks. This paper examines the liability of ISPs for third-party online copyright infringement within the Nigerian legal framework, with particular focus on the transformative provisions of the Copyright Act 2022. The paper employs the doctrinal research methodology, analyzing statutory provisions, regulatory instruments, and case law, while adopting a comparative approach with the United States' Digital Millennium Copyright Act and the European Union's E-Commerce Directive and Digital Single Market Directive. The paper evaluates the legal basis for ISP liability under the Copyrights Act 2022, assesses the extent of their responsibility for user-generated infringements, and identifies critical gaps in the new Act. It further explores the challenges posed by anonymity, cross-border platforms, and enforcement difficulties within Nigeria's digital ecosystem. The paper concludes with targeted recommendations for policy reforms, industry-specific measures, and enhanced dispute resolution mechanisms to strike an optimal balance between protecting copyright owners' rights and fostering a vibrant digital economy. The findings underscore the imperative for robust regulatory guidelines, institutional capacity building, and stakeholder education to ensure the effective implementation of Nigeria's nascent ISP liability regime.
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NICN JURISDICTION OVER LABOUR-RELATED FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS DISPUTES: ONYIRUKA V. A.G. OF ENUGU STATE EXAMINED
Section 254c (1) (d) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Third Alteration) Act, 2010 has vested the National Industrial Court of Nigeria (NICN) exclusive original civil jurisdiction over matters relating or connected with any disputes over Chapter IV of the Constitution while section 46(1) thereof, empowers any citizen whose right contained in the said Chapter IV that is threatens or has been breached to apply to a High Court within the state for redress. This raises the issue as to whether the NICN has exclusive original civil jurisdiction over disputes pertaining to Chapter IV of the constitution? The Court of Appeal in Mrs. Gloria Lewechi Onyiriuka v. A.G., Enugu has held that the NICN neither has nor exercises exclusive original civil jurisdiction over labour-related fundamental human rights disputes but has concurrent jurisdiction with the State and Federal High Court. Does this decision represent the right position of the law? What is its implication (s) on the exclusive jurisdiction of the NICN? What is its impact on the growth and development of Nigeria’s labour jurisprudence?
THE ARBITRATION AND MEDIATION ACT, 2023: NEW WINGS FOR MEDIATION IN NIGERIA?
In Nigeria, arbitration as well as mediation were regulated by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1988 (ACA, 1988) however, over the years, owing to developments in the field of arbitration, the ACA, 1988 could no longer match-up hence, they were legitimate calls for a review. In 2023, the Arbitration and Mediation Act, (AMA, 2023) was enacted. Thus, the AMA, 2023 is the first legislative effort at making express and specific regulatory provision on mediation. This article undertakes a clinical examination of the salient provisions of the AMA, 2023 with regards to mediation hinged on transformative mediation theory while explicating the historical development of mediation in Nigeria. It found that the AMA, 2023 contains novel and far-reaching mediation provisions which supports the growth of mediation. It recommends enlightenment and creative use of the AMA, 2023 for maximal benefits by stakeholders.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CLIMATE LAW IN JUDICIAL PRACTICE: THE EXPERIENCE OF NORWAY AND THE UNITED KINGDOM
The article analyzes the role of courts in the development of climate law from a legal perspective, drawing on the experience of Norway and the United Kingdom. The author examines the application of environmental provisions of the Constitution in Norway in the context of the case “People vs. Arctic Oil”. The article states that while the Supreme Court acknowledges that climate change is a real and serious threat, it refrains from overturning the government’s new oil licenses, recognizes a wide “margin of appreciation” and places climate claims more within the realm of political decision-making. In contrast, the UK section analyses decisions in the Finch case and projects in the North Sea such as Jackdaw and Rosebank, where courts interpret environmental impact assessment as a key legal tool for implementing climate commitments, rather than as a narrow technical procedure. In particular, it requires consideration of “downstream” emissions – emissions resulting from the subsequent burning of extracted oil and gas – and this approach significantly limits government discretion. The author concludes that, although both countries are bound by the same international climate regime, Norway is more cautious, while the United Kingdom is developing a more proactive model of judicial review that links human rights and climate obligations.
PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE OF THE CUSTOMARY COURT OF APPEAL IN SOUTH-WEST NIGERIA UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA 1999
The Customary Court of Appeal occupies a singular place in the judicial architecture of the six South-West states of Nigeria — Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, and Ekiti. It stands as the apex court for matters involving the customary law of predominantly Yoruba-speaking communities, exercising appellate and supervisory jurisdiction derived from sections 280 to 284 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 and supplemented by a body of state enabling legislation. Despite the constitutional entrenchment of the court, its practice and procedure remain, in significant respects, unevenly developed across the six states, with some states (notably Ogun) completing the formal constitution of their court only as recently as January 2020. This article offers a systematic examination of the practice and procedure of the Customary Court of Appeal in South-West Nigeria. It traces the constitutional and legislative framework of the court, analyses the scope of its appellate and supervisory jurisdiction, examines the procedural mechanisms governing the initiation and conduct of appeals, and identifies the evidentiary rules applicable in a jurisdiction from which the Evidence Act has been formally excluded. It further considers the pathway of appeals from the Customary Court of Appeal to the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court. The article concludes by identifying the principal challenges facing the court in the region — principally, the restrictive judicial interpretation of the phrase 'questions of customary law' and the absence of harmonised procedural rules across the Southwest states — and advances proposals for reform.
RISK-AWARE LEGAL GOVERNANCE FOR AI-DRIVEN CYBERSECURITY SYSTEMS: FRAMEWORKS, COMPLIANCE, AND ACCOUNTABILITY
As AI becomes increasingly central to cybersecurity, organizations face new legal and ethical challenges. This paper explores risk-aware governance approaches for AI-driven cybersecurity systems, focusing on compliance, accountability, and regulatory alignment. By reviewing current laws and AI-specific regulations, it identifies potential gaps and liabilities that may arise from automated decision-making. A practical framework is proposed to help organizations integrate risk management into their AI cybersecurity strategies, including ongoing monitoring, transparent reporting, and ethical safeguards. The study shows that considering legal and ethical aspects from the start not only reduces regulatory risks but also strengthens trust and system reliability. The insights offered aim to guide policymakers, legal professionals, and technology developers in fostering responsible AI adoption in cybersecurity.
LEGAL BARRIERS TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE OPEN SCIENCE PRINCIPLE: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EUROPEAN UNION AND UKRAINIAN LEGISLATION
This article examines legal barriers to implementing the open science principle in Ukraine through a comparative analysis with European Union legislation. The study aims to identify systemic legal obstacles and substantiate directions for harmonising Ukrainian legislation with EU acquis. The paper analyses key EU directives (Directive (EU) 2019/1024 on open data and Directive (EU) 2019/790 on copyright in the Digital Single Market), Horizon Europe requirements, UNESCO's 2021 Recommendation on Open Science, and recent Ukrainian legislative initiatives. Findings indicate terminological inconsistencies, copyright regulation gaps (including the absence of text and data mining exceptions and unresolved orphan works), fragmented institutional infrastructure, and insufficient mandatory financial incentives. The study substantiates the need to adopt a comprehensive open science law, implement relevant EU directives, establish national open data infrastructure, and integrate into the European Open Science Cloud (EOSC).
LEGAL EXEGESIS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AS A THREAT TO THE ENJOYMENT OF RIGHT TO LIFE IN NIGERIA
Climate Change (CC) is a change in the regular weather condition attributable directly/indirectly to human activities or natural variability that alters the composition of the global atmosphere over a comparable period of time, has a direct consequence on the environment and nature of life enjoyed therefrom. CC poses a momentous threat to the enjoyment of the right to life in Nigeria, aggravating existing environmental, social, and economic vulnerabilities precipitating increased temperatures, flooding, disrupt human health and security. This paper adopts doctrinal method in examining the laws on environmental protection, climate change control and the impact of climate change on right to life in Nigeria. The paper found that climate change causes and exacerbates mortality rates due to climate-related disasters, disproportionate impacts on vulnerable population, climate-related displacement, and heat-related illnesses on human well-being which negatively affect right to life. It emphasises the need for climate-resilient infrastructure, early warning systems, and community-led adaptation initiatives as safety measure against climate change reactions. The paper recommends urgent policy actions set-up/review to mitigate climate change effects, protect human rights through the instrumentality of the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules, 2009 in seeking environmental justice for victims of environmental degradation occasioned by climate change aimed at ensuring sustainable development in Nigeria.
THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE EXCLUSION AND WITHDRAWAL OF A PARTNER FROM A COMMERCIAL COMPANY
In this paper, we highlight a topic that we consider to be highly relevant and useful: that of the partner in a commercial company. We consider this topic to be relevant because commercial companies are the driving force behind a market economy. In the following sections, we will explain in a clear, precise, and accessible manner what a commercial company is, how a partner can be excluded, and how a partner can withdraw from a company. We will also analyze, with specific references to certain case studies from relevant Romanian case law, situations involving partners in commercial companies, as well as how the courts have addressed these issues.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AT THE CROSSROADS OF LAW AND MANAGEMENT: BUILDING RESPONSIBLE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Artificial intelligence is reshaping managerial decision-making, organizational design, and market competition, while also raising pressing questions of accountability, transparency, data protection, and regulatory compliance. This paper examines how organizations can adopt AI responsibly and transform legal and ethical requirements into a source of sustainable competitive advantage. Using a qualitative research design that combines a systematic literature review with a criteria-based comparative analysis of selected regulatory frameworks and organizational governance practices, the study identifies mechanisms that support trustworthy and legally robust AI implementation. The analysis shows that effective AI governance depends on aligning strategic objectives with ethical principles, compliance obligations, data stewardship, and clearly defined managerial responsibilities. Rather than limiting innovation, such alignment can strengthen organizational legitimacy, reduce risk exposure, improve stakeholder trust, and enhance long-term competitiveness. The paper contributes to the interdisciplinary debate on AI-driven transformation by integrating legal, ethical, and management perspectives into a practical governance model for managers, policymakers, and scholars concerned with responsible AI adoption.
BIOFUEL AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY IN AFRICA: LEGAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES
The global transition to sustainable energy sources has heightened attention on biofuelling as a renewable alternative particularly in Africa. Many African States focus on the efforts to promote biofuel production and sustainable energy in order to alleviate energy deficits within their jurisdictions. Laws, policies and initiatives from various renewable energy laws, African Union Instruments on sustainable energy and policies are set apparatus towards sustainable energy on the continent. However, there are challenges requiring coordinated legal, policy and ecosystem investment efforts. This article examines the intersection of laws, biofuelling and sustainable energy in Africa focusing on international and national regulatory frameworks through a comparative analysis. Doctrinal research methodology is adopted to conduct the research. The article identifies gaps in existing laws and policies, assesses environmental and social implications, and evaluates the economic and technical feasibility on sustainable energy in Africa. The findings from the research underscore the need to harmonise international standards, streamline permitting processes, and enhance environmental safeguards within African States for sustainable energy and environment.
AI IN CROSS-BORDER PROCUREMENT: LAW AND ETHICS
The dynamic digital transformation of public procurement via Artificial Intelligence (AI) creates a critical regulatory disparity with the World Trade Organization Government Procurement Agreement (WTO GPA), which mandates transparency and non-discrimination. This study analyzes the ethical and legal conflicts arising from the cross-border application of high-risk AI systems. The core issue is an ethical and legal trilemma: algorithmic bias, opacity (‘Black Box’), and the need for Explainability (XAI). These generate latent discrimination, violating GPA Article IV and undermining the right to an effective remedy (Article XVIII). A comparative analysis of international regulatory models (EU, UK, US, South Korea) shows convergence on mandatory Human-in-the-Loop (HiL) control and stricter algorithmic accountability. Traditional post-hoc XAI methods are insufficient for legally meaningful justification in high-risk sectors. The paper justifies transitioning to the ‘Justified AI’ (JAI) standard, ensuring inherent interpretability as the sole mechanism for guaranteeing digital accountability and full compliance with due process in cross-border public procurement.
LEGAL REGULATION OF COUNTERING DISINFORMATION IN THE AGE OF AI
The rapid proliferation of generative Artificial Intelligence (hereinafter - AI) has revolutionized the creation of disinformation, rendering traditional, static legal frameworks insufficient. This study examines the multifaceted legal challenges posed by AI-driven threats, specifically focusing on deepfakes and automated manipulative content that jeopardize democratic stability. Methodology. The research utilizes a comparative and doctrinal analysis of the European Union’s regulatory landscape. Specifically, it evaluates the efficacy of the EU AI Act and the Digital Services Act (hereinafter – DSA) concerning transparency obligations, technical watermarking, and algorithmic accountability. The analysis reveals that while current mechanisms provide a foundation for oversight, significant legal gaps remain in addressing the automated nature of synthetic media and the jurisdictional challenges of anonymous creators. Findings indicate that rigid mandates often struggle to keep pace with evolving technological capabilities. The study concludes that a resilient, adaptive regulatory framework is necessary to preserve national security and democratic integrity. It argues for a living legal system that balances technical enforcement with the protection of fundamental digital rights, ensuring that efforts to counter disinformation do not result in over-censorship or the infringement of freedom of expression.
NECESSITIES OF FOOD SAFETY THROUGH NAFDAC COMMITMENT TO THE MANDATE OF CONTROL AND ADMINISTRATION OF FOOD INTER-ALIA IN NIGERIA
The agency assigned with the responsibility for the control and administration of food and drug in Nigeria is the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, widely known by its short-title as NAFDAC. The mandate of the agency includes addressing food safety in Nigeria. This paper examines the extent the agency has travelled in fulfilling its mandate on food control and administration. The neglect by the agency to extend its mandate to food control in Nigeria leaves a huge gap in the exercise of an important aspect of its legal framework. This neglect to assume responsibility for the control of food in Nigeria has resulted in both food insecurity and unsafe food for human consumption in Nigeria. This paper adopts a comparative assessment of what obtains in some foreign jurisdictions through the vehicle of desktop review of relevant literature, in order to assess the commitment or otherwise of NAFDAC to food administration and control in Nigeria. The paper has four segments: first is on introduction and conceptual, theoretical frameworks of food safety and security; part two cites examples of food safety control measures from other jurisdictions as templates for NAFDAC implementation; part three gives examples of neglect by NAFDAC in food control and administration; part four concludes and that if Nigeria will be ready to walk the talk of “food safety and security” it must ensure that NAFDAC steps up its performances in this direction.
A NEW ERA OF HUMAN RIGHTS TOWARDS NEW CONSTITUTIONAL BORDERS
The contemporary human rights landscape faces unprecedented challenges and opportunities, necessitating a reconceptualization of constitutional borders and governance frameworks. This article examines the evolution of human rights discourse from its post-World War II internationalist foundations toward emerging paradigms that transcend traditional state sovereignty. Through analysis of transnational human rights mechanisms, digital rights frameworks, environmental constitutionalism, and the recognition of collective rights, we argue that a new constitutional era is emerging—one that redistributes authority across multiple levels of governance and extends protection beyond traditional human categories. This evolution reflects both the limitations of Westphalian sovereignty in addressing contemporary challenges and the potential for more inclusive, pluralistic human rights protection systems.
ANALYSIS OF THE PARADOX OF A UNITARY-LIKE JUDICIARY IN THE NIGERIAN FEDERATION
Since independence in 1960, the founding fathers of Nigeria recognised the need to embrace federalism as a system of government. Prior to independence, a system of regionalised governments anchored on federalism was in place nation-wide. This was meant to foster national integration and unity among the various ethnic, religious, and multi-cultural diversities. The need to build a strong nation at the centre while retaining local peculiarities and autonomy of the different sub-national governments was paramount, thereby making a federal system of government desirable. By dint of the Constitution and political experience, it was expected that the federal idea would occupy a preeminent position in the nation’s structure of governance. This study assessed the paradox of a unitary-like judiciary in the Nigerian federation. While the extent of federal and state legislative and executive powers was clearly spelt out in the Constitution, with regard to the Nigerian Judiciary, it was never the case. To what extent can it then be said that the principles of federalism were imbibed and entrenched in the structure of the Nigerian Judiciary? What makes the Nigerian Judiciary in reality unitary in structure despite the fact that Nigeria is a federation? Does the Nigerian Judiciary, as presently constituted, meet the yearnings and aspirations of Nigerians for true federalism? If not, why? It is this paradox that the paper addressed. The paper adopts doctrinal method and relied on primary and secondary data which were subjected to content and jurisprudential analysis. The paper then identified a few grey areas and pitfalls. Federal control of state judiciaries is clearly a pitfall, coupled with diffused jurisdictions of federal and state courts. The paper recommended that the judiciary should be decentralised with more autonomy given to state judiciaries to manage its affairs; and reforms implemented to address the diffused jurisdictional conflicts. This will put the Nigerian Judiciary in good stead within the context of the Nigerian federation.
LEGAL AND ETHICAL CHALLENGES FOR COMPETITIVE ORGANIZATIONS
Today, AI is extensively used in management decisions, having significant impacts on organizational efficiencies, governance structures, and competitive performances. This research attempts to explore the legal and ethical issues related to the application of AI and assess the role of responsible artificial intelligence as a tool for competition within organizations. The study seeks to ascertain the ways in which responsible AI helps mitigate legal risks and improve the ethical performance of organizations to make them more competitive. Using a quantitative methodology, data collected from 150 organizations implementing Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems were analyzed statistically to examine the relationship between Responsible Artificial Intelligence (RAI) governance practices and organizational competitiveness. The findings reveal that responsible AI enables organizations to gain more stakeholder trust and reduce the risk of regulations while achieving better strategic performances. It can be argued that responsible AI is not just about meeting compliance requirements, but rather an important tool for competitive organizations.
THE ROLE OF LEGAL REGULATION, SAFETY, AND CONSUMER PROTECTION IN TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
The tourism sector is one of the most dynamic and rapidly growing areas of the modern economy, strongly influenced by legal regulation, safety mechanisms, and consumer protection. Legal frameworks establish standards for tourism services, enhance tourist trust, reduce operational risks, and contribute to market stability and competitiveness. This article aims to analyze tourism legal regulation, examine approaches to tourist safety, and assess consumer rights protection mechanisms, as well as their impact on tourism market efficiency and development. The research is based on doctrinal-legal analysis, international documents, and relevant academic literature. The findings suggest that a well-developed legal framework improves consumer confidence, ensures service quality, and supports sustainable tourism growth, particularly in the context of digital transformation. The study also highlights the importance of tourism contracts and digital tourism in strengthening legal protection and maintaining a secure and competitive tourism market.
INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS OF LEGAL PROTECTION AGAINST ANTI-COMPETITIVE PRACTICES IN ROMANIA IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN COMPETITION LAW
This study examines the institutional mechanisms of legal protection against anti-competitive practices existing under Romanian law, analysed in relation to the requirements of European Union competition law. The paper starts from the normative framework established by Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) and by Regulation (EC) No 1/2003, in order to examine how these provisions have been transposed and adapted into domestic law through Competition Law No 21/1996 and the subsequent normative acts. Particular attention is given to the legal status, independence, and powers of the Romanian Competition Council, the national authority responsible for enforcing antitrust legislation, as well as to the impact of Directive (EU) 2019/1 (the ,,ECN+ Directive”) on the institutional consolidation of that authority. The study further examines the typology of anti-competitive practices – anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominance – the mechanisms for their detection and sanctioning, and recent case-law developments of the Court of Justice of the European Union, including the judgments delivered on 18 December 2025 in the joined cases concerning abuse of a dominant position. The conclusions of the study highlight both the progress achieved in the institutional alignment of Romania with European standards and the vulnerabilities that persist, in particular regarding the guarantees of independence of the national competition authority and the effectiveness of damages actions for harm caused by anti-competitive practices.
LEGAL LIMITS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN EMPLOYEE MONITORING AND TASK ALLOCATION UNDER LABOUR LAW
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in work management is increasingly extending to employee monitoring and the allocation of work tasks. This paper examines whether AI may be lawfully used to monitor employees in the performance of their work and what the legal and ethical limits of such practices are. The aim of the paper is to analyse the compatibility of AI-based monitoring systems with the fundamental principles of labour law and personal data protection. Through a normative legal analysis and from the perspective of organisational management, the paper examines the relevant regulatory frameworks and key legal standards governing employee monitoring. The main finding is that AI may support organisational efficiency and managerial decision-making; however, it cannot replace human oversight nor transfer legal responsibility from the employer. Monitoring based on AI must therefore remain transparent, proportionate, and subject to genuine human oversight.
ANALYSIS OF ROMANIA’S GDP DURING THE 2024–2026 PERIOD
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) represents one of the most important indicators used in macroeconomic analysis to evaluate the economic performance of a country, reflecting the total value of final goods and services produced within an economy during a certain period of time. (Bodea, 2022). In the current economic context, characterized by global uncertainties, inflation, and structural transformations of the economy, the analysis of GDP evolution becomes even more relevant. Romania’s economy has undergone significant transformations in recent decades, being influenced by the process of European integration, globalization, and technological development.
THE EVOLUTION OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN ROMANIA DURING THE 2024–2026 PERIOD
The study of unemployment is of particular importance because this phenomenon affects both economic and social life. In this regard, analysing unemployment contributes to a better understanding of labour market mechanisms and of the way in which the economy responds to internal and external changes. This paper aims to analyse unemployment from both theoretical and practical perspectives. The first chapter presents the main theoretical aspects of unemployment, namely its concept, characteristics, causes, classification, effects, and measures aimed at reducing it.
COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE OF CONTEMPORARY DIASPORAS: THE CASE OF AZERBAIJAN
Frequent migration processes in the modern world can be attributed to one of the key consequences of contemporary societal development. On the one hand, traditional drivers of migration include the collapse of existing political and economic structures, the emergence of new independent states, ongoing conflicts and wars, as well as socio-economic inequality between regions. On the other hand, the rapid development of communication and transport systems, expansion of information and communication technologies, and increasing global integration have significantly facilitated the mobility of individuals and the formation of transnational communities. Thus, modern diasporas have become increasingly visible as important actors within global social, political, and communication systems. In different states, ethnonational groups utilize socio-cultural self-organization as a mechanism for maintaining identity and influence across borders. This process has contributed to the growing significance of diasporas in international relations and global communication networks. A comprehensive response to these developments requires a rethinking of the role of transnational spaces and diaspora structures within contemporary global governance frameworks. The article examines communication challenges in contemporary diaspora systems, emphasizing that effective diaspora governance requires a systematic and conceptually grounded approach that integrates institutional, technological, and transnational dimensions of communication.
AI-BASED SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF FOREST RESOURCES IN THE KARABAKH ECONOMIC REGION IN AZERBAIJAN
The primary aim of this study is to assess the spatial distribution of forest resources in the Karabakh Economic Region using AI-assisted geospatial analysis and to evaluate the implications of identified spatial disparities for sustainable regional development and forest resource management. The paper investigates the spatial distribution of forest resources in the Karabakh Economic Region of Azerbaijan using AI-based geospatial analysis. The study highlights significant regional disparities in forest coverage, with the total forest area in the region amounting to 139,495.34 hectares, of which 34,616 hectares (24.82%) were directly studied. The overall forest coverage in the region is 13.96%, which is 1.46-2.46 percentage points higher than the national average. The analysis reveals that districts such as Aghdara (43.47%), Khojavand (25.79%), and Khojali (22.78%) have substantial forest resources, while districts like Aghjabadi, Aghdam, Barda, Fuzuli, and Tartar contribute only 2.5% of the region’s total forest cover. These findings underline the need for targeted interventions to address the uneven distribution of forest resources, promoting balanced and sustainable development across the region. The study employs open-spatial data extracted via Overpass Turbo, combined with Artificial Intelligence (AI)-assisted spatial processing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS)-based area calculations. The study contributes to sustainability-oriented decision-making by demonstrating how open data and artificial intelligence can support balanced environmental and socio-economic development.
ANALYSIS OF STUDENT INVOLVEMENT IN QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCESSES IN ITALY
This paper analyses the role of students in the quality assurance (QA) processes of the Italian university system by examining the Periodic Accreditation Reports (RAP) prepared by the Expert Evaluation Committees under the AVA 3 model. The research adopts a mixed-methods approach with a qualitative focus, based on a documentary analysis of the RAPs published by ANVUR, supported by generative Artificial Intelligence tools and subsequently integrated through quantitative coding of the collected evidence. Four indicators were developed regarding the inclusion, active participation, proactivity, and consideration of student concerns in QA processes. The results highlight statistically significant differences among the various types of universities, with reference to online universities, which exhibit lower levels of involvement compared to public universities. The study highlights the need to strengthen student participation as a structural requirement of QA systems and suggests possible developments of the AVA model from a more student-centered perspective.
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND MIGRATION PERCEPTIONS AMONG RURAL YOUTH IN ALBANIA
The relationship between social capital and migration perceptions among rural youth in Albania, a country strongly affected by emigration since the 1990s, is investigated in this study. A mixed-methods design was employed, combining a purposive survey of 197 respondents with 15 semi-structured interviews to assess whether community cooperation, neighbourly assistance, and psychological well-being influence perceptions of migration. Due to survey design limitations, the perceived impact of emigration on local economic development was used as a proxy for migration intentions. Descriptive results indicate that moderate levels of migration perceptions (M = 2.57, SD = 1.17) and social capital indicators (community cooperation M = 2.67; neighbourly assistance M = 2.79; psychological well-being M = 3.19) were observed. Quantitative analyses, including OLS regression with robust standard errors and ordinal logistic checks, revealed no statistically significant effects of social capital on migration perceptions. Nevertheless, qualitative findings highlighted a paradox: informational and emotional costs of migration were reduced by local networks, while community cohesion was simultaneously reinforced. These findings suggest that structural constraints, such as unemployment, institutional weakness, and rural underdevelopment, may overshadow the role of social capital in shaping migration attitudes. Empirical evidence from Albania is provided, and policy implications, including diaspora engagement, rural youth support, and the potential use of social networks as tools for both migration and local development, are discussed.
PRICE ADJUSTMENT, CONTRACTUAL PENALTIES AND PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES IN ROMANIAN PUBLIC WORKS CONTRACTS: NOTES FROM RECENT PRACTICE
This article examines three mechanisms that, in the ordinary course of a Romanian public works contract, rarely operate in isolation: price adjustment, contractual penalties, and performance guarantees. All three acquired renewed practical significance after 2022, once the gap between 2022-2023 tender prices and the actual cost of materials, labour and financing widened to a point where fixed-price contracts ceased to reflect any real economic equivalence between performance and consideration. The first part sets out the current legal architecture of price adjustment under Romanian public procurement law and its relationship to the penalty clause of the Civil Code. The second, and analytically more difficult, part examines what becomes of the adjustment entitlement where a subcontractor, rather than the main contractor, has performed the works in question, particularly where the subcontractor was never formally declared to the contracting authority. Drawing, in anonymised form, on recurring patterns encountered in recent Romanian construction practice, the article sets out the author's own position on how price adjustment, penalties and performance guarantees interact, and argues that price adjustment is not a discretionary concession contracting authorities may grant or withhold, but an imperative statutory entitlement that a main contractor cannot retain for itself by invoking its own failure to declare the subcontractor whose work generated it.
CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS IN THE NIGERIAN BANKING INDUSTRY AND THE IMPERATIVENESS OF SOCIO-LEGAL GUARDRAILS
Climate change impacts have significant risks to the global financial system, yet the linkages of climate vulnerability and banking stability remain underexplored in the developing economies. This article examines the effects of climate change on the Nigerian banking industry, with particular focus on legal frameworks, regulatory responses, and emerging liabilities. Nigeria, as Africa’s largest economy and the country which is highly susceptible to climate‑induced hazards like flooding, desertification, and oil‑related environmental degradation, posts need for compelling case study of climate change impact in the banking industry. The article synthesises legal authorities, including the Climate Change Act 2021, the Central Bank of Nigeria’s Sustainable Banking Guidelines, and landmark judicial decisions to assess how climate risks translate into credit, market, operational, and liability risks for banks. It further explores the growing relevance of transnational climate litigation and its potential to extend liability to financial institutions. The analysis reveals significant gaps in prudential regulation, enforcement, and judicial preparedness, which impede the banking sector’s capacity to manage climate‑related financial risks. The article concludes with actionable recommendations for strengthening legal and regulatory frameworks, mandating climate‑related financial disclosures, and embedding climate risk into the core of banking supervision. By situating Nigeria within the global discourse on sustainable finance, this study contributes to the evolving scholarship on climate law, banking regulation, and sustainable development in the emerging markets.
FRONTIERS OF DEMOCRACY IN EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: TRAJECTORIES, CHALLENGES, AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES
East European democracies stand at critical junctures characterized by simultaneous advancement and erosion. Three decades after the collapse of communist regimes, countries in the region display remarkable diversity in democratic development, ranging from EU and NATO members with robust institutions to competitive authoritarian systems demonstrating significant backsliding. This article examines the frontiers of democracy in East European countries through comparative institutional analysis, assessing trajectories of democratization, contemporary challenges to democratic consolidation, and emerging fault lines defining the region's democratic future. By analyzing Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Western Balkans, we identify common patterns—democratic fatigue, populist mobilization, judicial independence threats, media capture, and EU-state tensions—while recognizing significant variations reflecting distinct historical, institutional, and geopolitical contexts. The article concludes that East European democracies face unprecedented pressures requiring innovative institutional responses and renewed commitment to democratic values.
UNDERSTANDING THE NEO-NATIONALISM PHENOMENON IN EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: IDEOLOGY, MOBILIZATION, AND TRANSFORMATION OF DEMOCRATIC POLITICS
Neo-nationalism has emerged as the defining ideological force reshaping East European politics in the twenty-first century. Distinct from nineteenth-century nationalism or Cold War anti-communism, contemporary neo-nationalism combines assertions of national sovereignty with cultural conservatism, anti-immigration policies, and skepticism toward supranational institutions (particularly the EU). This article examines the neo-nationalist phenomenon across East European countries—Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Western Balkans—analyzing its ideological foundations, social bases, mobilization strategies, and transformative effects on democratic institutions and practices. We argue that neo-nationalism represents not merely a political movement but a comprehensive alternative vision of governance, identity, and international relations that challenges liberal-democratic consensus and threatens democratic consolidation. Understanding neo-nationalism requires examining economic grievances, cultural anxieties, historical traumas, geopolitical insecurities, and the organizational capacities of neo-nationalist political entrepreneurs. The article concludes that addressing neo-nationalism's political dominance requires not dismissal but serious engagement with underlying grievances while defending democratic institutions against anti-democratic nationalist capture.
REFLECTIVE JOURNALS FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION SUPPORTING EARLY-CAREER ACADEMICS
Reflective practice is increasingly recognized as a fundamental competence for the professional development of university teachers and for enhancing the quality of higher education teaching. Drawing on Donald Schön’s concept of the reflective practitioner and on European policies promoting continuous professional development, this paper examines the value of reflective journals as tools for Faculty Development. Based on a review of the pedagogical literature, the study proposes a semi-structured reflective journal model designed for early-career academics, organized into three progressive levels of reflection and supported by University Teaching and Learning Centers. The model aims to foster self-analysis, critical interpretation of teaching experiences, and the redesign of educational practices, highlighting the role of Teaching and Learning Centers as facilitators of professional growth and teaching quality enhancement. Although still at a theoretical and developmental stage, the proposed model offers a potential methodological framework for promoting reflective practice and pedagogical innovation in the professional development of university teachers.
ALGORITHMIC GOVERNANCE AND ELECTORAL MANIPULATION: AI SYSTEMS IN ROMANIAN POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS AND DEMOCRATIC VULNERABILITIES
Artificial intelligence and algorithmic recommendation systems have become central instruments in contemporary electoral campaigns (Helbing et al., 2019), fundamentally transforming how political messages are created, targeted, and amplified. Romania, as an EU member state, faces a confluence of threats: technological and legal vulnerabilities unaddressed by 2015 electoral legislation, limited institutional capacity, and escalating sophistication in AI-assisted disinformation. This article analyzes the mechanisms through which algorithms influence electoral behavior, identifies critical gaps in Romanian legal frameworks, and proposes legislative and institutional reforms to protect electoral integrity in the AI era. Examining the 2020 and 2024 presidential elections, this study identifies specific vulnerabilities within the Romanian electorate and comparative regulatory models from other European democracies. The analysis reveals that current constitutional protections for free voting (Article 36) and freedom of expression (Article 30) require urgent judicial interpretation in the context of algorithmic manipulation. The article proposes a comprehensive reform strategy including amendments to the Electoral Code (Law 207/2015), creation of a unified Electoral AI Authority (AAEE), and alignment with EU regulatory frameworks including the Digital Services Act (2022/2065) and GDPR. The research demonstrates that regulatory approaches adopted in Germany, France, and Austria offer viable models for protecting electoral integrity without restricting legitimate political expression or forcing platform withdrawal from Romanian markets.
AN EXAMINATION OF ACADEMIC WRITING PROFICIENCY: IMPLICATIONS FOR MILITARY PROFESSION
The acquisition of academic writing competence represents the culmination of a structured learning process that is tailored to the educational environment and is facilitated through direct instruction or specialized procedures. This paper aims to explore academic writing within the context of the military profession to illuminate the multifaceted aspects involved in developing academic writing proficiency within a military academic framework. Furthermore, the primary objectives were to elucidate the key components of academic writing competence in military tertiary education, determine the fundamental aspects of the academic writing-learning process, and emphasize how the cultivation of academic writing proficiency enhances future professional endeavors. To fulfill the established objectives, not only descriptive research but also a literature review was conducted. The observation, analysis, description, and documentation helped to investigate the multifaceted aspects of developing proficiency in academic writing within the context of advanced military educational institutions. The results of the study highlight the strong connection between military professional requirements and academic writing competence, and the importance of adapting the learning process in accordance with future career requirements. Moreover, this investigation underscores the intricate relationship between professional requisites and academic writing aptitude, emphasizing the critical need to align educational processes with future career expectations. The study advances our comprehension of academic writing skill development within military educational field and provides valuable perspectives for subsequent research endeavors within the domain of military education.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ESTABLISHING AND DEVELOPING INTERNAL AUDIT IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina faces significant challenges related to transparency, accountability, and governance quality. In this context, the development of internal audit systems has become an important mechanism for strengthening institutional integrity and improving overall performance. Internal audit contributes to the efficiency of processes, transparency in financial management, and compliance with legal and strategic obligations. However, its implementation remains uneven, and its role is often insufficiently recognized or integrated into governance structures.This paper examines the importance of establishing and developing internal audit in higher education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, focusing on key challenges, systemic shortcomings, and areas for improvement. The aim is to analyse how internal audit principles, risk management practices, and alignment with European standards can enhance governance quality in the higher education sector. The study is based on empirical research exploring employees’ perceptions of the role and importance of internal audit, its impact on institutional performance, and the level of trust in internal processes. The findings indicate a high level of awareness regarding the importance of internal audit, but also reveal challenges that limit its full development. Key weaknesses point to the need for stronger human and institutional capacities, improved standardization, and better alignment with European requirements. Overall, the results confirm that strengthening the establishment and continuous development of internal audit can significantly enhance transparency, accountability, and long-term sustainability in higher education, providing a foundation for modernization and more effective governance.
In the year 1989 there was a common celebration going on all around the world as the Berlin Wall fell and Western capital was crowned winner of the Cold War. One of the characteristics of the feared Soviet regime was of course censorship. The western mind would not perceive the idea of censorship as a reality in their geo-political hemisphere. However, as time went on the brave new world proved itself cowardly in other ways. In this article we will analyze how censorship worked in the west during the Cold War and how those tepid seeds grew into a new form of censorship.
GENERATIVE DEBATE AS A PRACTICE OF INQUIRY IN THE AGE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
The rapid diffusion of artificial intelligence is transforming educational environments and raising new questions about the ways knowledge is accessed, interpreted, and discussed. While educational debates have often focused on technological innovation and AI literacy (Holmes et al., 2019; UNESCO, 2023), the growing availability of systems capable of generating explanations, summaries, and arguments invites a broader reflection on the educational role of inquiry and argumentation. In contexts where answers can be produced instantaneously, the challenge is no longer limited to accessing information but increasingly concerns the ability to critically interrogate the responses generated within AI-mediated environments. The paper introduces the concept of Generative Debate as a theoretical framework for rethinking the educational function of debate in the age of artificial intelligence. Drawing on studies in argumentation theory (Toulmin, 1958; Kuhn, 1991, 2005) and recent research on artificial intelligence in education (Lo, 2023; Cotton et al., 2024), the article argues that debate should be understood not merely as a means of developing communication or persuasive skills, but as a practice of inquiry through which learners critically examine interpretations, evidence, and knowledge claims. The article suggests that the educational value of argumentation lies increasingly in its capacity to transform the abundance of AI-generated responses into opportunities for investigation, deliberation, and reflective engagement with complex issues. From this perspective, Generative Debate is proposed as a pedagogical response to the challenges of contemporary AI-mediated educational environments, reaffirming the centrality of inquiry within processes of teaching and learning.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND TAX ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA: OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TAX COMPLIANCE
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in tax administration has revolutionized tax collection, compliance enforcement, and taxpayer services. In Nigeria, the Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) is exploring AI's potential to enhance tax administration, improve compliance, and increase revenue generation. This paper examines AI's transformative potential in Nigeria's tax administration, contributing to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16 by reducing illicit financial flows and strengthening domestic resource mobilization. Using a doctrinal approach, this study analyzes AI's opportunities, challenges, and implications, highlighting benefits such as improved tax compliance, taxpayer experience, and revenue generation. The study reveals that AI can enhance tax compliance through personalized services, improved audit processes, and tax evasion detection. However, concerns about taxpayer rights, transparency, and accountability in AI-driven tax administration are noted. The paper recommends a comprehensive AI adoption strategy, infrastructure investment, and capacity building to ensure transparent, accountable, and fair tax administration